About site: Astronomy/Calendars and Timekeeping - The Calendar, Leap Years and the Year 2000

About site: http://chemistry.csudh.edu/oliver/smt310-handouts/calendar.htm

Title: Astronomy/Calendars and Timekeeping - The Calendar, Leap Years and the Year 2000 An explanation of the calendar including the origin of the day, week, month and year.

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The Calendar, Leap Years and the Year 2000 ADThis page has been visited

times since March 2, 1999 The Calendar, Leap Years and the Year 2000 ADThanks to the Science and Engineering Research Councilof the Royal Greenwich Observatory. This informationis reprinted from files found in the World Wide WebTHE CALENDARA calendar is a system of reckoning the time over extendedintervals by combining days into longer groupings which arelinked to the way in which we live. The groupings often havereligious significance and some of the groups are linked toastronomical periods. Our calendar is made up of days, weeks, months and years. Theday is the rotational period of the Earth; the week is a purelyartificial period linked to the Biblical story of creation; the monthis linked to the period of the Moon and the year is linked to theEarth's period of rotation around the Sun. Other CalendarsThe Jewish calendar and the Moslem calendar are intimatelyconnected with the Moon. The Jewish calendar is now a fixedcalendar with rather complex rules for its construction. Thelength of the Jewish year may be 353, 354 or 355 days or 383, 384or 385 days. Each month has 29 or 30 days. The Moslem calendar is also a fixed calendar, but the religiousfestivals depend on visual sightings of the New Moon. The lengthof the Moslem year is 12 months of alternate lengths 30 and 29days, except for the 12th month which can have either 29 or 30days. The calendar is kept in adjustment with the Moon using acycle of years of different length. The DayThe definition of the day seems very simple. It should be the timetaken for one passage of the Sun across the meridian to its nextcrossing. Unfortunately the Earth's movement around the Sun isnot circular and this causes the time indicated by a sundial to bedifferent from that measured by a clock. (The difference is calledthe Equation of Time and is describy a clock. (The difference is called the Equation of Time and is described in a separate pamphlet.) Nor is the Earth's rotation period constant, although the variationsare very small. So we use a length for the day which representsthe Earth's average rotation period. Occasionally we have toinsert `leap-seconds' to correct from this exact measure to theslightly irregular rotation of the Earth. The WeekMosaic law forbidding work on every seventh day established aseven-day period as a measure of Jewish time. This passed overinto the Christian church and gradually became established in theRoman calendar. The astrological practice of naming the daysusing the names of the Sun, Moon and the five known planets alsoyielded a seven day period. The names that we give to the days of the week are still based onthis nomenclature. In English Sunday and Monday are namedafter the Sun and Moon while the other days of the week arenamed after the teutonic versions of the gods that correspond toeach planet. Tiu = Mars, Woden = Mercury, Thor = Jupiter andFreya = Venus, Saturday keeping its latin connection with Saturn. The MonthMany ancient calendars were based on the lunar cycle. The lunarmonth is 29.530589 days and the number of lunations in a year is12.368267. The most common scheme was to have 12 montommon scheme was to have 12 months of30 days with either arbitrary or calculated additional days ormonths to bring the system into accord with the solar year. Originally the Roman calendar had 10 months Martius (namedafter Mars and indicating the time for resumption of war), Aprilis(after the word for `to open', hence Spring), Maius (after Maia, thegoddess of growth), Junius (after juvenis, meaning youth),Quintilius, tilis, Septembris, Octobris and Decembris (meaningthe fifth to tenth months). The Romans had a dislike of evennumbers as these symbolized death and so the months had either29 or 31 days. King Numa increased the number of months to 12by introducing Januarius (after the god Janus, the protector ofdoorways and hence the opening of the year) and Februarius (afterFebrualia, the time for sacrifices at the end of the year). The orderof the months was later changed. In order to reconcile the solar and lunar years,at therecommendation of Sosigenes Julius Caesar altered the lengths ofthe months and the change to our present format was completedby Caesar Augustus. They both claimed the names of one of themonths and this gave rise to Julius and Augustus which replacedQuintilius and tilis. The YearThe number of days in one revolution of the Earth around the Sunis f the Earth around the Sun is 365.2422 days. Unfortunately, this is not a whole number andso if we wish to keep the calendar in track with the seasons wemust adopt some form of variable year length. The first major attempt to accomplish this was by Julius Caesar. Besides pinching a day from the last month of the year (thenFebruary) to make `his' month, July, have 31 days he introducedthe Julian calendar. February was further despoiled by AugustusCaesar who also purloined a day so as to make `his' month,August, also have 31 days. As some sort of compensation theleap-day was given to February. The Julian calendar introduced a year of length 365 days with aleap-year every 4 years. It also moved the start of the year fromMarch 25 to January 1, supposedly the longest day. The adoptedlength of the year, 365. 25 days, is only slightly different from theactual length, 365. 2422 days, but over the centuries thedifference mounts up and by the 16th century had becomenoticeable. The effect is to move Spring and the date of Easter,which is related to the vernal equinox, closer to the date ofChristmas. The Gregorian reform to the calendar altered the rule fordetermining if a year should be a leap-year by stating thatcentenary years should only be leap-years if they were divisible by400. It also dropped several days from the caled several days from the calendar so that thevernal equinox was brought back to March 21. The mean lengthof the calendar year is now 365. 2425 days and the errorcompared with the true value amounts to only 3 days in 10,000years. LEAP YEARSThe year is defined as being the interval between two successivepassages of the Sun through the vernal equinox. Of course, whatis really occurring is that the Earth is going around the Sun but itis easier to understand what is happening by considering theapparent motion of the Sun in the sky.The vernal equinox is the instant when the Sun is above theEarth's equator while going from the south to the north. It is thetime which astronomers take as the definition of the beginning ofSpring.The year as defined above is called the trove is called the tropical year and itis the year length that defines the repetition of the seasons. Thelength of the tropical year is 365.24219 days.In 46 BC Julius Caesar established the Julian calendar which wasused in the west until 1582. In the Julian calendar each yearcontained 12 months and there were an average of 365.25 days ina year. This was achieved by having three years containing 365days and one year containing 366 days. (In fact the leap yearswere not correctly inserted until 8 AD).The discrepancy between the actual length of the year, 365.24219days, and the adopted length, 365.25 days, may not seemimportant but over hundreds of years the difference becomesobvious. The reason for this is that the seasons, which depend onthe date in the tropical year, were getting progressively out ofkilter with the calendar date. Pope Gregory XIII, in 1582,instituted the Gregorian calendar, which has been used since then.The change from the Julian calendar to the Gregorian involved thechange of the simple rule for leap-years to the more complex onein which century years should only be leap-years if they weredivisible by 400. For example, 1700,1800 and 1900 are notleap-years whereas 2000 will be.The net effect is to make the adopted average length of the year365.2425 days. The dhe year 365.2425 days. The difference between this and the true lengthwill not have a serious effect for many thousands of years. (Theerror amounts to about 3 days in 10,000 years.)The adoption of the Gregorian calendar was made in Catholiccountries in 1582 with the elimination of 10 days, October the 4thbeing followed by October 15th. The Gregorian calendar alsostipulated that the year should start on January 1. In non-Catholiccountries the change was made later; Britain and her coloniesmade the change in 1752 when September 2nd was followed bySeptember 14 and New Year's Day was changed from March 25to January 1.MillenniaA millennium is a period of 1000 years. The question of whichyear is the first year of the millennium hinges on the date of thefirst year AD.Unfortunately the sequence of years going from BC to AD doesnot include a Year 0. The sequence of years runs 3 BC, 2 BC, 1BC, 1 AD, 2 AD, 3 AD etc. This means that the first year of thefirst millennium was 1 AD. The one thousandth year was 1000AD and the first day of the second millennium was 1001 AD.It is thus clear that the start of the new millennium will be 1 Jan2001.Celebrations.The year 200="br1"> The year 2000 AD will certainly be celebrated, as is natural for ayear with such a round number but, accurately speaking, we willbe celebrating the 2000th year or the last year of the millennium,not the start of the new millennium. Whether this will be anexcuse for more celebrations in the following year will have to beseen!/html>

An	explanation	of	the
calendar	including	the	origin	of
the	day,	week,	month	and
year.

http://chemistry.csudh.edu/oliver/smt310-handouts/calendar.htm

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