Niobium - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia /**/ /**/ if (wgNotice != '') document.writeln(wgNotice); Niobium From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search 41zirconium ← niobium → molybdenumV↑Nb↓Ta Periodic Table - Extended Periodic TableGeneralName, Symbol, Numberniobium, Nb, 41Element categorytransition metalsGroup, Period, Block5, 5, dAppearancegray metallic Standard atomic weight92.90638(2) g·mol−1Electron configuration[Kr] 4d4 5s1Electrons per shell2, 8, 18, 12, 1Physical propertiesPhasesolidDensity (near r.t.)8.57 g·cm−3Melting point2750 K(2477 °C, 4491 °F)Boiling point5017 K(4744 °C, 8571 °F)Heat of fusion30 kJ·mol−1Heat of vaporization689.9 kJ·mol−1Specific heat capacity(25 °C) 24.60 J·mol−1·K−1Vapor pressureP(Pa)1101001 k10 k100 kat T(K)294232073524391043935013Atomic propertiesCrystal structurecubic body centredOxidation states5, 4, 3, 2,(mildly acidic oxide)Electronegativity1.6 (Pauling scale)Ionization energies(more)1st: 652.1 kJ·mol−12nd: 1380 kJ·mol−13rd: 2416 kJ·mol−1Atomic radius145 pmAtomic radius (calc.)198 pmCovalent radius137 pmMiscellaneousMagnetic orderingparamagneticElectrical resistivity(0 °C) 152 nΩ·mThermal conductivity(300 K) 53.7 W·m−1·K−1Thermal expansion(25 °C) 7.3 µm·m−1·K−1Speed of sound (thin rod)(20 °C) 3480 m/sYoung's modulus105 GPaShear modulus38 GPaBulk modulus170 GPaPoisson ratio0.40Mohs hardness6.0Vickers hardness1320 MPaBrinell hardness736 MPaCAS registry number7440-03-1Most-stable isotopesMain article: Isotopes of niobiumisoNAhalf-lifeDMDE (MeV)DP91Nbsyn6.8×102 yε-91Zr91mNbsyn60.86 dIT0.104e91Nb92Nbsyn10.15 dε-92Zrγ0.934-92Nbsyn3.47×107yε-92Zrγ0.561, 0.934-93Nb100%93Nb is stable with 52 neutrons93mNbsyn16.13 yIT0.031e93Nb94Nbsyn2.03×104 yβ-0.47194Moγ0.702, 0.871-95Nbsyn34.991 dβ-0.15995Moγ0.765-95mNbsyn3.61 dIT0.23595NbReferencesNiobium (pronounced /naɪˈoʊbiəm/) (Greek mythology: Niobe, daughter of Tantalus), or columbium (/kəˈlʌmbiəm/), is a chemical element with symbol Nb and atomic number 41. A rare, soft, grey, ductile transition metal, niobium is found in the minerals pyrochlore (the main source for niobium) and columbite.Niobium has similar physical and chemical properties to another element, tantalum, and the two are therefore difficult to distinguish. The English chemist Charles Hatchett reported a new element similar to tantalum in 1801, and named it columbium. In 1809, the English chemist William Hyde Wollaston wrongly concluded that tantalum and columbium were identical. The German chemist Heinrich Rose determined in 1846 that tantalum ores contain a second element, which he named niobium. In 1864 and 1865, a series of scientific findings clarified that niobium and columbium were the same element (as distinguished from tantalum), and for a century both names were used interchangeably. The name of the element was officially adopted as niobium in 1949.It was not until the early 20th century that niobium was first used commercially. Brazil is the leading producer of niobium and ferroniobium, an alloy of niobium and iron. Niobium is used mostly in alloys, the largest part in special steel such as that used in gas pipelines. Although alloys contain only a maximum of 0.1%, that small percentage improves the strength of the steel. The temperature stability of niobium-containing superalloys is important for its use in jet engines and rocket engines. These superconducting alloys, also containing titanium and tin, are widely used in MRI scanners. Other applications of niobium include its use in welding, nuclear industries, electronics, optics, numismatics and jewellery. In the last two applications, niobium's low toxicity and ability to be coloured by anodisation are particular advantages.Contents1 History2 Characteristics2.1 Isotopes2.2 Compounds2.3 Occurrence3 Production4 Applications4.1 Steel production4.2 Superalloys4.3 Superconducting magnets4.4 Numismatics4.5 Other uses5 Precautions6 References7 External links//[edit] History  Charles Hatchett, discoverer of columbiumNiobium was discovered by the English chemist Charles Hatchett in 1801.[1] He found a new element in a mineral sample that had been sent to England from Massachusetts in 1734 by a John Winthrop,[2] and named the mineral columbite and the new element columbium after Columbia, the poetical name for America.[3] The columbium discovered by Hatchett was probably a mixture of a new element with tantalum.[3]Subsequently, there was considerable confusion[4] over the difference between columbium (niobium) and the closely-related tantalum. In 1809, the English chemist William Hyde Wollaston compared the oxides derived from both columbium—columbite, with a density 5.918 g/cm3, and tantalum—tantalite, with a density 7.935 g/cm3, and concluded that the two oxides, despite the significant difference in density, were identical; thus he kept the name tantalum.[4] This conclusion was disputed in 1846 by the German chemist Heinrich Rose, who argued that there were two different elements in the tantalite sample, and named them after children of Tantalus: niobium (from Niobe, the goddess of tears), and pelopium (from Pelops).[5][6] This confusion arose from the minimal observed differences between tantalum and niobium. Both tantalum and niobium react with chlorine and traces of oxygen, including atmospheric concentrations, forming two compounds: the white volatile niobium pentachloride (NbCl5) and the non-volatile niobium oxychloride (NbOCl3). Scientists claimed to have discovered new elements: pelopium, ilmenium and dianium,[7] which were in fact identical to niobium or mixtures of niobium and tantalum.[8]The differences between tantalum and niobium were unequivocally demonstrated in 1864 by Christian Wilhelm Blomstrand,[8] and Henri Etienne Sainte-Claire Deville, as well as Louis J. Troost, who determined the formulas of some of the compounds in 1865[9][8] and finally by the Swiss chemist Jean Charles Galissard de Marignac,[10] in 1866, who all proved that there were only two elements. These discoveries did not stop scientists from publishing articles about ilmenium until 1871.[11] De Marignac was the first to prepare the metal in 1864, when he reduced niobium chloride by heating it in an atmosphere of hydrogen.[12]Although de Marignac was able to produce tantalum-free niobium on a larger scale by 1866, it was not until the early 20th century that niobium was first used commercially, in incandescent lamp filaments.[9] This use quickly became obsolete through the replacement of niobium with tungsten, which has a higher melting point and thus is preferable for use in incandescent lamps. The discovery that niobium improves the strength of steel was made in the 1920s, and this remains its predominant use.[9] In 1961 the American physicist Eugene Kunzler and coworkers at Bell Labs discovered that niobium-tin continues to exhibit superconductivity in the presence of strong electric currents and magnetic fields,[13] making it the first material known to support the high currents and fields necessary for making useful high-power magnets and electrically powered machinery. This discovery would allow—two decades later—the production of long multi-strand cables that could be wound into coils to create large, powerful electromagnets for rotating machinery, particle accelerators, or particle detectors.[14][15]Columbium (symbol Cb[16]) was the name originally given to this element by Hatchett, and this name remained in use in American journals—the last paper published by American Chemical Society with columbium in its title dates from 1953[17]—while niobium was used in Europe. To end this confusion, the name niobium was chosen for element 41 at the 15th Conference of the Union of Chemistry in Amsterdam in 1949.[18] A year later this name was officially adopted by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) after 100 years of controversy, despite the chronological precedence of the name Columbium.[18] The latter name is still sometimes used in US industry.[19] This was a compromise of sorts;[18] the IUPAC accepted tungsten instead of wolfram, in deference to North American usage; and niobium instead of columbium, in deference to European usage. Not everyone agreed, and while many leading chemical societies and government organizations refer to it by the official IUPAC name, many leading metallurgists, metal societies, and the United States Geological Survey still refer to the metal by the original "columbium".[20][21][edit] CharacteristicsNiobium is a lustrous, grey, ductile metal in group 5 of the periodic table, that takes on a bluish tinge when exposed to air at room temperature for extended periods.[22] Niobium's chemical properties are very similar to the chemical properties of tantalum, which appears directly below niobium in the periodic table.[9][edit] IsotopesMain article: Isotopes of niobiumNaturally occurring niobium is composed of one stable isotope, 93Nb.[23] As of 2003, at least 32 radioisotopes have also been synthesized, ranging in atomic mass from 81 to 113. The most stable of these is 92Nb with a half-life of 34.7 million years. One of the least stable is 113Nb, with an estimated half-life of 30 milliseconds. Isotopes that are lighter than the stable 93Nb tend to decay by β+ decay, and those that are heavier tend to decay by β- decay, with some exceptions. 81Nb, 82Nb, and 84Nb have minor β+ delayed proton emission decay paths, 91Nb decays by electron capture and positron emission, and 92Nb decays by both β+ and β- decay.[23]At least 25 nuclear isomers have been described, ranging in atomic mass from 84 to 104. Within this range, only 96Nb, 101Nb, and 103Nb do not have isomers. The most stable of niobium's isomers is 93mNb with a half-life of 16.13 years. The least stable isotope is 84mNb with a half-life of 103 ns. All of niobium's isotopes decay by isomeric transition or beta decay except 92m1Nb, which has a minor electron capture decay path.[23][edit] CompoundsSee also: Category:Niobium compoundsThe metal begins to oxidize in air at 200 °C.[24] It is able to form oxides with the oxidation states +5 (Nb2O5), +4 (NbO2) and +3 (Nb2O3),[24] as well as with the rarer oxidation state +2 (NbO).[25] The most stable oxidation state is +5, the pentoxide which, along with the dark green non-stoichiometric dioxide, is the most common of the oxides.[24] Niobium pentoxide is used mainly in the production of capacitors, optical glass, and as starting material for several niobium compounds.[26] The compounds are created by dissolving the pentoxide in basic hydroxide solutions or by melting it in another metal oxide. Examples are lithium niobate (LiNbO3) and lanthan niobate (LnNbO4). In the lithium niobate, the niobate ion NbO3− is not alone but part of a perovskite-like structure, while the lantane niobate contains lone NbO43− ions.[24] Lithium niobate, which is a ferroelectric, is used extensively in mobile telephones and optical modulators, and for the manufacture of surface acoustic wave devices. It belongs to the ABO3 structure ferroelectrics like lithium tantalate and barium titanate.[27] Niobium pentachlorideNiobium forms halogen compounds in the oxidation states of +5, +4, and +3 of the type NbX5, NbX4, and NbX3, although multi-core complexes and substoichiometric compounds are also formed.[24][28] Niobium pentafluoride (NbF5) is a white solid with a melting point of 79.0 °C and niobium pentachloride (NbCl5) is a white solid with a melting point of 203.4 °C. Both are hydrolyzed by water and react with additional niobium at elevated temperatures by forming the black and highly hygroscopic niobium tetrafluoride (NbF4) and niobium tetrachloride (NbCl4). While the trihalogen compounds can be obtained by reduction of the pentahalogens with hydrogen, the dihalogen compounds do not exist.[24] Spectroscopically, the monochloride (NbCl) has been observed at high temperatures.[29] The fluorides of niobium can be used after its separation from tantalum.[30] The niobium pentachloride is used in organic chemistry as a Lewis acid in activating alkenes for the carbonyl-ene reaction and the Diels-Alder reaction.[31] The pentachloride is also used to generate the organometallic compound niobocene dichloride ((C5H5)2NbCl2), which in turn is used as a starting material for other organoniobium compounds.[32]Other binary compounds of niobium include niobium nitride (NbN), which becomes a superconductor at low temperatures and is used in detectors for infrared light,[33] and niobium carbide, an extremely hard, refractory, ceramic material, commercially used in tool bits for cutting tools. The compounds niobium-germanium (Nb3Ge) and niobium-tin (Nb3Sn), as well as the niobium-titanium alloy, are used as a type II superconductor wire for superconducting magnets.[34][35][edit] OccurrenceSee also: Category:Niobium mineralsAccording to estimates, niobium is 33rd on the list of the most common elements in the Earth’s crust with 20 ppm.[36] The abundance on Earth should be much greater, but the “missing” niobium may be located in the Earth’s core due to the metal's high density.[20] The free element is not found in nature, but it does occur in minerals. Minerals that contain niobium often also contain tantalum, for example, columbite ((Fe,Mn)(Nb,Ta)2O6), columbite-tantalite (or coltan, (Fe,Mn)(Ta,Nb)2O6) and pyrochlore ((Na,Ca)2Nb2O6(OH,F).[30] Less common, although they form the largest mined niobium deposits, are the niobates of calcium, uranium, thorium and the rare earth elements such as pyrochlore and euxenite ((Y,Ca,Ce,U,Th)(Nb,Ta,Ti)2O6). These large deposits of niobium have been found associated with carbonatites (carbon-silicate igneous rocks) and as a constituent of pyrochlore.[37]The two largest deposits of pyrochlore were found in the 1950s in Brazil and Canada, and both countries are still the major producers of niobium mineral concentrates.[9] The largest deposits in Brazil are owned by CBMM (Companhia Brasileira de Metalurgia e Mineração) located in Araxá; Minas Gerais, the other deposit, is owned by Mineração Catalão located in Catalão, Goiás.[38] The third largest producer of niobium is the Niobec Inc. mine in Saint-Honoré near Chicoutimi, Quebec.[38] Yet not mined extensive ore reserves are located in Nigeria, Democratic Republic of Congo, and in Russia.[edit] Production Niobium producers in 2007After the separation from the other minerals, the mixed oxides of tantalum Ta2O5 and niobium Nb2O5 are obtained. The first step in the processing is the reaction of the oxides with hydrofluoric acid:[30]Ta2O5 + 14HF → 2H2[TaF7] + 5H2O, andNb2O5 + 10HF → 2H2[NbOF5] + 3H2OThe first industrial scale separation, developed by de Marignac, used the difference in solubility between the complex niobium and tantalum fluorides, dipotassium oxypentafluoroniobate monohydrate (K2[NbOF5].H2O) and dipotassium heptafluorotantalate (K2[TaF7]) in water. Newer processes use the liquid extraction of the fluorides from aqueous solution by organic solvents like cyclohexanone.[30] The complex niobium and tantalum fluorides are extracted separately from the organic solvent with water and either precipitated by the addition of potassium fluoride to produce a potassium fluoride complex, or precipitated with ammonia as the pentoxide:[24]H2[NbOF5] + 2KF → K2[NbOF5]↓ + 2HF, then2H2[NbOF5] + 10NH4OH → Nb2O5↓ + 10NH4F + 3H2OSeveral methods are used for the reduction to metallic niobium. The electrolysis of a molten mixture of K2[NbOF5] and sodium chloride is one, the other is the reduction of the fluoride with sodium. With this method niobium with a relatively high purity can be obtained. In large scale production the reduction of Nb2O5 with hydrogen or carbon,[24] is used. In the process involving the aluminothermic reaction a mixture of iron oxide and niobium oxide is reacted with aluminium:3Nb2O5 + Fe2O3 + 12Al → 6Nb + 2Fe + 6Al2O3To enhance the reaction, small amounts of oxidizers like sodium nitrate are added. The result is aluminium oxide and ferroniobium, an alloy of iron and niobium used in the steel production.[39][40] The ferroniobium contains between 60 and 70% of niobium.[38] Without addition of iron oxide aluminothermic process is used for the production of niobium. Further purification is necessary to reach the grade for superconductive alloys. Electron beam melting under vacuum is the method used by the two major distributors of niobium.[28][41]The United States Geological Survey estimates that the production to increased from 38,700 metric tonnes in 2005 to 44,500 tonnes in 2006.[42][43] The world wide resources are estimated to be 4,400,000 tonnes.[43] In the ten years between 1995 and 2005 the production more than doubled starting from 17,800 tonnes in 1995.[44][edit] Applications A niobium foilIt is estimated that of the 44,500 metric tons of niobium mined in 2006, 90% ended up in the production of high-grade structural steel, followed by its use in superalloys.[45] The use of niobium alloys for superconductors and in electronic components account only for a small share of the production.[45][edit] Steel productionNiobium is an effective microalloying element for steel. Adding niobium to the steel causes the formation of niobium carbide and niobium nitride within the structure of the steel.[20] These compounds improve the grain refining, retardation of recrystallization, and precipitation hardening of the steel. These effects in turn increase the toughness, strength, formability, and weldability of the microalloyed steel.[20] Microalloyed stainless steels have a niobium content of less than 0.1%.[46] It is an important alloy addition to high strength low alloy steels which are widely used as structural components in modern automobiles.[20] These niobium containing alloys are strong and are often used in pipeline construction.[47][48] Apollo CSM with the dark rocket nozzle made from niobium titanium alloy A 3 tesla clinical Magnetic resonance imaging scanner using niobium-superconducting alloy An 150 Years Semmering Alpine Railway Coin made of niobium and silver[edit] SuperalloysAppreciable amounts of the element, either in its pure form or in the form of high-purity ferroniobium and nickel niobium, are used in nickel-, cobalt-, and iron-base superalloys for such applications as jet engine components, gas turbines, rocket subassemblies, and heat resisting and combustion equipment. Niobium precipitates a hardening γ''-phase within the grain structure of the superalloy.[49] The alloys contain up to 6.5% niobium.[46] One example of a nickel-based niobium-containing superalloy is inconel 718, which consists of 18.6% chromium, 18.5% iron, 5% niobium, 3.1% molybdenum, 0.9% titanium, and 0.4% aluminium.[50][51] These superalloys are used, for example, in advanced air frame systems such as those used in the Gemini program.An alloy used for liquid rocket thruster nozzles, such as in the main engine of the Apollo Lunar Modules, is C130, which consists of 89% niobium, 10% hafnium and 1% titanium.[52] Another niobium alloy was used for the nozzle of the Apollo Service Module. As niobium is oxidized at temperatures above 400 °C, a protective coating is necessary for these applications to prevent the alloy from becoming brittle.[52][edit] Superconducting magnetsNiobium becomes a superconductor when lowered to cryogenic temperatures. At atmospheric pressure, it has the highest critical temperature of the elemental superconductors: 9.2 K.[38] Niobium has the largest magnetic penetration depth of any element.[38] In addition, it is one of the three elemental Type II superconductors, along with vanadium and technetium. Niobium-tin and niobium-titanium alloys are used as wires for superconducting magnets capable of producing exceedingly strong magnetic fields. These superconducting magnets are used in Magnetic resonance imaging and Nuclear magnetic resonance instruments as well as in for particle accelerators.[53] For example, the Large Hadron Collider uses 600 metric tons of superconducting strands, while the International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor is estimated to use 600 metric tonnes of Nb3Sn strands and 250 metric tonnes of NbTi strands.[54] In 1992 alone, niobium-titanium wires were used to construct more than 1 billion US dollars worth of clinical magnetic resonance imaging systems.[14][edit] NumismaticsNiobium is used as a precious metal in commemorative coins, often with silver or gold. For example, Austria produced a series of silver niobium coins starting in 2003; the colour in these coins is created by diffraction of light by a thin oxide layer produced by anodising. In 2008, six coins are available showing a broad variety of colours in the centre of the coin: blue, green, brown, purple, violet, or yellow. Two more examples are the 2004 Austrian 25 euro 150 Years Semmering Alpine Railway commemorative coin,[55] and the 2006 Austrian 25 euro European Satellite Navigation commemorative coin.[56] Latvia produced a similar series of coins starting 2004,[57] with one following in 2007.[58][edit] Other usesNiobium and some niobium alloys are used in medical devices such as pacemakers, because they are physiologically inert (and thus hypoallergenic).[59] Niobium treated with sodium hydroxide forms a porous layer that aids osseointegration.[60] Along with titanium, tantalum, and aluminium, niobium can also be electrically heated and anodized, resulting in a wide array of colours using a process known as reactive metal anodizing which is useful in making jewelry.[61][62] The fact that niobium is hypoallergenic also benefits the use in jewelry.[63]The electrodes in some high pressure sodium vapor lamps are made from niobium, or niobium with 1% of zirconium, because niobium is resistant to the corrosive sodium vapors within the lamp.[64][65] The metal is also used in arc welding rods for some stabilized grades of stainless steel.[66]Niobium was evaluated as a cheaper alternative to tantalum in capacitors,[67] but tantalum capacitors are still predominant. Niobium is added to glass in order to attain a higher refractive index, a property of use to the optical industry in making thinner corrective glasses. The metal has a low capture cross-section for thermal neutrons;[68] thus it is used in the nuclear industries.[69]The Superconducting Radio Frequency (RF) cavities used in the free electron lasers TESLA and XFEL are made from pure niobium.[70]The high sensitivity of superconducting niobium nitride bolometers make them an ideal detector for electromagnetic radiation in the THz frequency band. These detectors were tested at the Heinrich Hertz Submillimeter Telescope, the South Pole Telescope, the Receiver Lab Telescope, and at APEX and are now used in the HIFI instrument on board the Herschel Space Observatory. [71][edit] PrecautionsNiobium has no known biological role. While niobium dust is an eye and skin irritant and a potential fire hazard, elemental niobium on a larger scale is physiologically inert (and thus hypoallergenic) and harmless. It is frequently used in jewelry and has been tested for use in some medical implants.[72][73]Niobium-containing compounds are rarely encountered by most people, but some are toxic and should be treated with care. The short and long term exposure to niobates and niobium chloride, two chemicals that are water soluble, have been tested in rats. Rats treated with a single injection of niobium pentachloride or niobates show a median lethal dose (LD50) between 10 and 100 mg/kg.[74][75][76] For oral administration the toxicity is lower; a study with rats yielded a LD50 after seven days of 940 mg/kg.[74][edit] References^ Hatchett, Charles (1802). "Eigenschaften und chemisches Verhalten des von Charlesw Hatchett entdeckten neuen Metalls, Columbium" (in German). Annalen der Physik 11 (5): 120–122. doi:10.1002/andp.18020110507. ^ Griffith, William P.; Morris, Peter J. T. (2003). "Charles Hatchett FRS (1765-1847), Chemist and Discoverer of Niobium". Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London 57 (3): 299. doi:10.1098/rsnr.2003.0216, http://www.jstor.org/stable/3557720. ^ a b Noyes, William Albert (1918). A Textbook of Chemistry, H. Holt & Co.. pp. 523, http://books.google.com/books?id=UupHAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA523&lpg=PA523&dq=columbium+discovered+by+Hatchett+was+a+mixture+of+two+elements&source=web&ots=fYAZdQEGtb&sig=awPTuKyi-Id4L06ZIu0ryIZOzw0&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=7&ct=result. ^ a b Wollaston, William Hyde (1809). "On the Identity of Columbium and Tantalum". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London 99: 246–252. doi:10.1098/rstl.1809.0017, http://www.jstor.org/stable/107264. ^ Rose, Heinrich (1844). "Ueber die Zusammensetzung der Tantalite und ein im Tantalite von Baiern enthaltenes neues Metall" (in German). Annalen der Physik 139 (10): 317–341. doi:10.1002/andp.18441391006, http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k15148n/f327.table. ^ Rose, Heinrich (1847). "Ueber die Säure im Columbit von Nordamérika" (in German). Annalen der Physik 146 (4): 572–577. doi:10.1002/andp.18471460410, http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k15155x/f586.table. ^ Kobell, V. (1860). "Ueber eine eigenthümliche Säure, Diansäure, in der Gruppe der Tantal- und Niob- verbindungen". Journal für Praktische Chemie 79 (1): 291–303. doi:10.1002/prac.18600790145. ^ a b c Marignac, Blomstrand, H. Deville, L. Troost und R. Hermann (1866). "Tantalsäure, Niobsäure, (Ilmensäure) und Titansäure". Fresenius' Journal of Analytical Chemistry 5 (1): 384–389. doi:10.1007/BF01302537. ^ a b c d e Gupta, C. K.; Suri, A. K. (1994). Extractive Metallurgy of Niobium, CRC Press. pp. 1–16. ISBN 0849360714. ^ Marignac, M. C. (1866). "Recherches sur les combinaisons du niobium" (in French). Annales de chimie et de physique 4 (8): 7–75, http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k34818t/f4.table. ^ Hermann, R. (1871). "Fortgesetzte Untersuchungen über die Verbindungen von Ilmenium und Niobium, sowie über die Zusammensetzung der Niobmineralien (Further research about the compounds of ilmenium and niobium, as well as the composition of niobium minerals)" (in German). Journal für Praktische Chemie 3 (1): 373–427. doi:10.1002/prac.18710030137. ^ "Niobium". Universidade de Coimbra. Retrieved on 2008-09-05.^ Geballe et al. (1993) gives a critical point at currents of 150 kiloamperes and magnetic fields of 8.8 tesla.^ a b Geballe, Theodore H. (October 1993). "Superconductivity: From Physics to Technology" (PDF). Physics Today 46 (10): 52–56. doi:10.1063/1.881384, http://www.physicstoday.org/vol-56/iss-10/pdf/vol46no10p52-56.pdf. ^ Matthias, B. T.; Geballe, T. H.; Geller, S.; Corenzwit, E. (1954). "Superconductivity of Nb3Sn". Physical Review 95: 1435–1435. doi:10.1103/PhysRev.95.1435. ^ Kòrösy, F. (1939). "Reaction of Tantalum, Columbium and Vanadium with Iodine". Journal of the American Chemical Society 61 (4): 838–843. doi:10.1021/ja01873a018. ^ Ikenberry, Luther; Martin, J. L.; Boyer, W. J. (1953). "Photometric Determination of Columbium, Tungsten, and Tantalum in Stainless Steels". Analytical Chemistry 25 (9): 1340–1344. doi:10.1021/ac60081a011. ^ a b c Rayner-Canham, Geoff; Zheng, Zheng (2008). "Naming elements after scientists: an account of a controversy". Foundations of Chemistry 10 (1): 13–18. doi:10.1007/s10698-007-9042-1. ^ Clarke, F. W. (1914). "Columbium Versus Niobium". Science 39 (995): 139–140. doi:10.1126/science.39.995.139. PMID 17780662, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1640945. ^ a b c d e Patel, Zh.; Khul'ka K. (2001). "Niobium for Steelmaking" (PDF). Metallurgist 45 (11–12): 477–480. doi:10.1023/A:1014897029026. ^ Norman N., Greenwood (2003). "Vanadium to dubnium: from confusion through clarity to complexity". Catalysis Today 78 (1–4): 5–11. doi:10.1016/S0920-5861(02)00318-8. ^ Lide, David R. (2004). "The Elements". CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (85 ed.), CRC Press. pp. 4–21. ISBN 9780849304859. ^ a b c Georges, Audi (2003). "The NUBASE Evaluation of Nuclear and Decay Properties". Nuclear Physics A (Atomic Mass Data Center) 729: 3–128. doi:10.1016/j.nuclphysa.2003.11.001. ^ a b c d e f g h Holleman, Arnold F.; Wiberg, Egon; Wiberg, Nils; (1985). "Niob" (in German). Lehrbuch der Anorganischen Chemie (91–100 ed.), Walter de Gruyter. pp. 1075–1079. ISBN 3110075113. ^ Greenwood, Norman N.; Earnshaw, A. (1997), Chemistry of the Elements (2nd ed.), Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann, ISBN 0-7506-3365-4 ^ Cardarelli, Francois (2008). Materials Handbook, Springer London. ISBN 978-1-84628-668-1. ^ Volk, Tatyana; Wohlecke, Manfred (2008). Lithium Niobate: Defects, Photorefraction and Ferroelectric Switching, Springer. pp. 1–9. ISBN 9783540707653. ^ a b Agulyansky, Anatoly (2004). The Chemistry of Tantalum and Niobium Fluoride Compounds, Elsevier. pp. 1–11. ISBN 9780444516046. ^ Ram, R.S.; Rinskopf, N.; Liévin, J.; Bernatha, P.F. (2004). "Fourier transform emission spectroscopy and ab initio calculations on NbClq". Journal of Molecular Spectroscopy 228: 544–553, http://bernath.uwaterloo.ca/media/270.pdf. ^ a b c d Soisson, Donald J.; McLafferty, J. J.; Pierret, James A. (1961). "Staff-Industry Collaborative Report: Tantalum and Niobium". Industrial and Engineering Chemistry 53 (11): 861–868. doi:10.1021/ie50623a016. ^ Andrade, C. K. Z.; Rocha, R. O.; Russowsky, D.; & Godoy, M. N. (2005). "Studies on the Niobium Pentachloride-Mediated Nucleophilic Additions to an Enantiopure Cyclic N-acyliminium Ion Derived from (S)-malic acid". Journal of the Brazilian Chemical Society 16: 535–539. doi:10.1590/S0103-50532005000400007, http://jbcs.sbq.org.br/online/2005/vol16_n3B/06-144-04.pdf. ^ C. R. Lucas, J. A. Labinger, J. Schwartz (1990). Robert J. Angelici. ed.. "Dichlorobis(η5-Cyclopentadienyl)Niobium(IV)". Inorganic Syntheses (New York: J. Wiley & Sons) 28: 267–270. doi:10.1002/9780470132593.ch68. ISBN 0-471-52619-3. ^ Verevkin, A.; Pearlman, A.; Slstrokysz, W.; Zhang, J.; Currie, M.; Korneev, A.; Chulkova, G.; Okunev, O.; Kouminov, P.; Smirnov, K.; Voronov, B.; N. Gol'tsman, G.; Sobolewski, Roman (2004). "Ultrafast superconducting single-photon detectors for near-infrared-wavelength quantum communications". Journal of Modern Optics 51 (12): 1447–1458. doi:10.1080/09500340410001670866. ^ Lindenhovius, J.L.H. (2000). "Powder-in-tube (PIT) Nb/sub 3/Sn conductors for high-field magnets". IEEE Transactions on Applied Superconductivity 10: 975–978. doi:10.1109/77.828394. ^ Nave, Carl R.. "Superconducting Magnets". Georgia State University, Department of Physics and Astronomy. Retrieved on 2008-11-25.^ Emsley, John (2001). "Niobium". Nature's Building Blocks: An A-Z Guide to the Elements. Oxford, England, UK: Oxford University Press. pp. 283–286. ISBN 0198503407. ^ Lumpkin, Gregory R.; Ewing, Rodney C. (1995). "Geochemical alteration of pyrochlore group minerals: Pyrochlore subgroup". American Mineralogist 80: 732–743, http://www.minsocam.org/msa/AmMin/TOC/Articles_Free/1995/Lumpkin_p732-743_95.pdf. ^ a b c d e Kouptsidis, J.. "Niob für TESLA" (in German). Deutsches Elektronen-Synchrotron DESY. Retrieved on 2008-09-02.^ Tither, Geoffrey (2001). Minerals, Metals and Materials Society, Metals and Materials Society Minerals. ed.. "Progress in Niobium Markets and Technology 1981–2001" ([dead link] – Scholar search). Niobium Science & Technology: Proceedings of the International Symposium Niobium 2001 (Orlando, Florida, USA) (Niobium 2001 Ltd, 2002). ISBN 9780971206809, http://www.cbmm.com.br/portug/sources/techlib/science_techno/table_content/images/pdfs/oppening.pdf. ^ Dufresne, Claude; Goyette, Ghislain (2001). Minerals, Metals and Materials Society, Metals and Materials Society Minerals. ed.. "The Production of Ferroniobium at the Niobec mine 1981–2001" ([dead link] – Scholar search). Niobium Science & Technology: Proceedings of the International Symposium Niobium 2001 (Orlando, Florida, USA) (Niobium 2001 Ltd, 2002). ISBN 9780971206809, http://www.cbmm.com.br/portug/sources/techlib/science_techno/table_content/sub_1/images/pdfs/start.pdf. ^ Choudhury, Alok; Hengsberger, Eckart (1992). "Electron Beam Melting and Refining of Metals and Alloys". The Iron and Steel Institute of Japan International 32 (5): 673–681, http://db1.wdc-jp.com/isij/abst/199205/is320673.html. ^ Papp, John F. "Niobium (Columbium)". USGS 2006 Commodity Summary. Retrieved on 2008-11-20.^ a b Papp, John F. "Niobium (Columbium)". USGS 2007 Commodity Summary. Retrieved on 2008-11-20.^ Papp, John F. "Niobium (Columbium)". USGS 1997 Commodity Summary. Retrieved on 2008-11-20.^ a b Papp, John F. "Niobium (Columbium ) and Tantalum". USGS 2006 Minerals Yearbook. Retrieved on 2008-09-03.^ a b Heisterkamp, Friedrich; Tadeu Carneiro (2001). Minerals, Metals and Materials Society, Metals and Materials Society Minerals. ed.. "Niobium: Future Possibilities – Technology and the Market Place" ([dead link] – Scholar search). Niobium Science & Technology: Proceedings of the International Symposium Niobium 2001 (Orlando, Florida, USA) (Niobium 2001 Ltd, 2002). ISBN 9780971206809, http://www.cbmm.com.br/portug/sources/techlib/science_techno/table_content/images/pdfs/closing.pdf. ^ Eggert, Peter; Priem, Joachim; Wettig, Eberhard (1982). "Niobium: a steel additive with a future" (PDF). Economic Bulletin 19 (9): 8–11. doi:10.1007/BF02227064. ^ Hillenbrand, Hans–Georg; Gräf, Michael; Kalwa, Christoph (2001-05-02). "Development and Production of High Strength Pipeline Steels". Niobium Science & Technology: Proceedings of the International Symposium Niobium 2001 (Orlando, Florida, USA) (Europipe), http://www.europipe.com/files/ep_tp_43_01en.pdf. ^ Donachie, Matthew J. (2002). Superalloys: A Technical Guide, ASM International. pp. 29–30. ISBN 9780871707499. ^ Bhadeshia, H. K. D. H. "Nickel Based Superalloys". University of Cambridge. Retrieved on 2008-09-04.^ Pottlacher, G.; Hosaeus, H.; Wilthan, B.; Kaschnitz, E.; Seifter, A. (2002). "Thermophysikalische Eigenschaften von festem und flüssigem Inconel 718" (in German). Thermochimica Acta 382: 55–267. doi:10.1016/S0040-6031(01)00751-1. ^ a b Hebda, John (2001-05-02). "Niobium alloys and high Temperature Applications" ([dead link] – Scholar search). Niobium Science & Technology: Proceedings of the International Symposium Niobium 2001 (Orlando, Florida, USA) (Companhia Brasileira de Metalurgia e Mineração), http://www.cbmm.com.br/portug/sources/techlib/science_techno/table_content/sub_3/images/pdfs/016.pdf. ^ Glowacki, B. A.; Yan, X. -Y.; Fray, D.; Chen, G.; Majoros, M.; Shi, Y. (2002). "Niobium based intermetallics as a source of high-current/high magnetic field superconductors". Physica C: Superconductivity 372–376 (3): 1315–1320. doi:10.1016/S0921-4534(02)01018-3. ^ Grunblatt, G.; Mocaer, P.; Verwaerde Ch.; Kohler, C. (2005). "A success story: LHC cable production at ALSTOM-MSA". Fusion Engineering and Design (Proceedings of the 23rd Symposium of Fusion Technology) 75–79: 1–5. doi:10.1016/j.fusengdes.2005.06.216. ^ "25 Euro - 150 Years Semmering Alpine Railway (2004)". Austrian Mint. Retrieved on 2008-11-04.^ "150 Jahre Semmeringbahn" (in German). Austrian Mint. Retrieved on 2008-09-04.^ "Coin of Time". Bank of Latvia. Retrieved on 2008-09-19.^ "Coin of Time II". Bank of Latvia. Retrieved on 2008-09-19.^ Mallela, Venkateswara Sarma; Ilankumaran, V.; Srinivasa Rao, N. (01 Jan 2004). "Trends in Cardiac Pacemaker Batteries" (PDF). Indian Pacing Electrophysiol J. 4 (4): 201–212. PMID 16943934, http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=1502062. ^ Godley, Reut; Starosvetsky, David; Gotman, Irena (2004). "Bonelike apatite formation on niobium metal treated in aqueous NaOH" (PDF). Journal of Materials Science: Materials in Medicine 15: 1073–1077. doi:10.1023/B:JMSM.0000046388.07961.81, http://www.springerlink.com/content/l5613670648017wp/. ^ Biason Gomes, M. A.; Onofre, S.; Juanto, S.; Bulhões, L. O. de S. (1991). "Anodization of niobium in sulphuric acid media". Journal of Applied Electrochemistry 21 (11): 1023–1026. doi:10.1007/BF01077589. ^ Chiou, Y. L. (1971). "A note on the thicknesses of anodized niobium oxide films". Thin Solid Films 8 (4): R37–R39. doi:10.1016/0040-6090(71)90027-7. ^ Azevedo, C. R. F.; Spera, G.; Silva, A. P. (2002). "Characterization of metallic piercings that caused adverse reactions during use". Journal of Failure Analysis and Prevention 2 (4): 47–53. doi:10.1007/BF02715453 (inactive 12 November 2008). ^ Eichelbrönner, G. (1998). "Refractory metals: crucial components for light sources" (PDF). International Journal of Refractory Metals and Hard Materials 16 (1): 5–11. doi:10.1016/S0263-4368(98)00009-2. ^ Michaluk, Christopher A.; Huber, Louis E.; Ford, Robert B. (2001). Minerals, Metals and Materials Society, Metals and Materials Society Minerals. ed.. "Niobium and Niobium 1% Zirconium for High Pressure Sodium (HPS) Discharge Lamps" ([dead link] – Scholar search). Niobium Science & Technology: Proceedings of the International Symposium Niobium 2001 (Orlando, Florida, USA) (Niobium 2001 Ltd, 2002). ISBN 9780971206809, http://www.cbmm.com.br/portug/sources/techlib/science_techno/table_content/sub_3/images/pdfs/017.pdf. ^ US5,254,836 (PDF version) (1993-10-19) Okada, Yuuji; Kobayashi, Toshihiko; Sasabe, Hiroshi; Aoki, Yoshimitsu; Nishizawa, Makoto; Endo, Shunji, Method of arc welding with a ferrite stainless steel welding rod. ^ Pozdeev, Y. (1991). "Reliability comparison of tantalum and niobium solid electrolytic capacitors". Quality and Reliability Engineering International 14 (2): 79–82. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1099-1638(199803/04)14:2<79::AID-QRE163>3.0.CO;2-Y. ^ Jahnke, L.P.; Frank, R.G.; Redden, T.K. (1960). "Columbium Alloys Today". Metal Progr. 77 (6): 69–74, http://www.osti.gov/energycitations/product.biblio.jsp?osti_id=4183692. ^ Nikulina, A. V. (2003). "Zirconium-Niobium Alloys for Core Elements of Pressurized Water Reactors". Metal Science and Heat Treatment 45 (7–8): 287–292. doi:10.1023/A:1027388503837. ^ Lilje, L.; Kakob, E.; Kostina, D.; Matheisena, A.; Möllera, W. -D.; Procha, D.; Reschkea, D.; Saitob, K. Schmüserc, P.; Simrocka, S.; Suzukid T.; Twarowskia, K. (2004). "Achievement of 35 MV/m in the superconducting nine-cell cavities for TESLA". Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section A: Accelerators, Spectrometers, Detectors and Associated Equipment 524: 1–12. doi:10.1016/j.nima.2004.01.045. ^ Cherednichenko, Sergey; Drakinskiy, Vladimir; Berg, Therese; Khosropanah, Pourya; Kollberg, Erik (2008). "A Hot-electron bolometer terahertz mixers for the Herschel Space Observatory". Review of Scientific Instruments 79: 0345011–03451010. doi:10.1063/1.2890099. ^ Vilaplana, J.; Romaguera, C.; Grimalt, F.; Cornellana, F. (1990). "New trends in the use of metals in jewellery". Contact Dermatitis 25 (3): 145–148. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0536.1991.tb01819.x. ^ Vilaplana, J.; Romaguera, C. (1998). "New developments in jewellery and dental materials". Contact Dermatitis 39 (2): 55–57. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0536.1998.tb05832.x. ^ a b Haley, Thomas J.; Komesu, N.; Raymond, K. (1962). "Pharmacology and toxicology of niobium chloride". Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology 4 (3): 385–392. doi:10.1016/0041-008X(62)90048-0. ^ Downs, William L.; Scott, James K.; Yuile, Charles L.; Caruso, Frank S.; Wong, Lawrence C. K. (1965). "The Toxicity of Niobium Salts". American Industrial Hygiene Association Journal 26 (4): 337–346. doi:10.1080/00028896509342740 (inactive 12 November 2008). ^ Schroeder, Henry A.; Mitchener, Marian; Nason, Alexis P. (1970). "Zirconium, Niobium, Antimony, Vanadium and Lead in Rats: Life term studies". Journal of Nutrition 100 (1): 59–68. PMID 5412131, http://jn.nutrition.org/cgi/content/abstract/100/1/59. [edit] External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Niobium Look up niobium inWiktionary, the free dictionary.Los Alamos National Laboratory – NiobiumWebElements.com – NiobiumTantalum-Niobium International Study CenterNiobium for particle accelerators eg ILC. 2005v • d • ePeriodic tableH HeLiBe BCNOFNeNaMg AlSiPSClArKCa ScTiVCrMnFeCoNiCuZnGaGeAsSeBrKrRbSr YZrNbMoTcRuRhPdAgCdInSnSbTeIXeCsBaLaCePrNdPmSmEuGdTbDyHoErTmYbLuHfTaWReOsIrPtAuHgTlPbBiPoAtRnFrRaAcThPaUNpPuAmCmBkCfEsFmMdNoLrRfDbSgBhHsMtDsRgUubUutUuqUupUuhUusUuoUueUbn Alkali metalsAlkaline earth metalsLanthanoidsActinoidsTransition metalsOther metalsMetalloidsOther nonmetalsHalogensNoble gasesRetrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niobium" Categories: Chemical elements | Transition metals | NiobiumHidden categories: All articles with dead external links | Articles with dead external links since November 2008 | Pages with DOIs broken since 2008 Views Article Discussion Edit this page History Personal tools Log in / create account if (window.isMSIE55) fixalpha(); Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Search Interaction About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact Wikipedia Donate to Wikipedia Help Toolbox What links here Related changesUpload fileSpecial pages Printable version Permanent linkCite this page Languages Afrikaans العربية বাংলা Беларуская Bosanski Català Česky Corsu Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Furlan Gaelg Galego 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Ido Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano עברית Basa Jawa Kiswahili Kreyòl ayisyen Kurdî / كوردی Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Lojban Magyar മലയാളം Nāhuatl Nederlands 日本語 Norsk (bokmål) Norsk (nynorsk) Occitan O'zbek Polski Português Română Русский Sicilianu Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / Srpski Srpskohrvatski / Српскохрватски Suomi Svenska தமிழ் ไทย Tiếng Việt Türkçe Українська 中文   This page was last modified on 2 December 2008, at 22:59. All text is available under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License. (See Copyrights for details.) Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a U.S. registered 501(c)(3) tax-deductible nonprofit charity. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook(); |
|
