| Neutron_Stars_and_Supernovae Brief look at the evidence connecting neutron stars with supernovae. |
| Neutron_Stars_and_X-ray_Binaries An accessible summary of neutron stars and X-ray binaries, presented by the Chandra X-ray Observatory. Includes a comprehensive Q&A section and a selection of quality images. |
| Princeton_Pulsar_Group Princeton University's site on pulsars, including a definition of pulsars, multimedia and telescopic images, and links to other web data. |
| Pulsar_Physics Provides technical descriptions of pulsars - focussing on neutron stars, gamma ray pulsars and polar cap or outer gap gamma-ray emission. |
| Radio_Pulsar_Newsletter Radio pulsar abstracts published by the University of Sydney's Research Centre for Theoretical Astrophysics. |
| Summaries_of_Neutron_Star_Types Includes short summaries on neutron stars, including information on pulsars, neutron degeneracy, pulsar examples, binary pulsars and planets around pulsars. This information links to a useful navigabl |
| A_Tutorial_on_Radio_Pulsars A tutorial from the Australia Telescope National Facility, Parkes, New South Wales |
| Windows_to_the_Universe__Neutron_Stars A typical neutron star is the size of a small city, but it may have the mass of as many as three suns. |
| X-ray_Astronomy__Neutron_Stars Brief description of neutron stars. |
| Angiosperm_Phylogeny Phylogenetic trees, technical descriptions of all orders and families, references, and links. By Peter Stevens of the Missouri Botanical Garden. |
| Angiosperms_Image_Gallery Extensive collection, organized by family. |
| The_Families_of_Flowering_Plants A taxonomical database with descriptions and illustrations of each family, and an interactive key to families. |
| Flowering_Plant_Gateway Various paths for exploration or comparison of four major flowering plant classification systems (Cronquist, Takhtajan, Thorne and the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group system). From Texas A&M University |
| OSU_Seed_Biology_Program_-_SeedID_Index Photographs of the seeds of selected plants. |
| CPC_-_La_Niña_Coverage Regularly updated discussion and coverage of the La Niña weather system including global and regional impacts and forecasting. |
| CPC_El_Niño/Southern_Oscillation_(ENSO) Coverage of the 1997/98 El Niño weather system from the Climate Prediction Centre, including forecasts, historical info, and the impact of the system on weather patterns. |
| El_Niño_and_La_Niña__Tracing_the_Dance_of_Ocean_and_Atmosphere National Academies popular article describes the basic scientific research that led to our current understanding of these weather phenomenon. |
| El_Niño/La_Niña_Watch Archive of images and news releases about observations of the El Nino/La Nina phenomenon in the Pacific Ocean by the U.S./French TOPEX/Poseidon, Jason-1, and other NASA/JPL satellites and instruments. |
| The_Potential_Use_and_Misuse_of_El_Niño_Information A workshop report from the Environmental and Social Impacts Group. Includes compilation of documents including an executive summary and a glossary. |
| What_is_an_El_Niño? Illustrated explanation with realtime graphics and animations of data from the tropical Pacific Ocean. From NOAA. |
| What_is_La_Niña? Illustrated explanation with realtime graphics and animations of data. Also numerous links to reference material from NOAA. |
| Atlas_of_the_Moon Interactive Moon atlas (hotspots) with links to 237 close-up images. [Also in German] |
| The_Captive_Moon Offers overview article including exploration history and cultural history. |
| Dyson\'s_Animated_Moon Interative moon map (Flash based) with brief information about various features. |
| Earth-Moon_Dynamics_Page Extracts from five papers studying Earth-Moon dynamics relating to evolution and gravity topics. |
| Geologic_Lunar_Research_Group Resource for all lunar observers interested in geologic, dome and TLP research. Some content in Italian. |
| Google_Moon A photographic map of the equatorial region with pan and zoom capability, showing locations of the Apollo landings. |
| Interactive_Map_of_the_Moon The visible and the hidden side. Includes games and basic information about the satellite and the lunar missions. |
| Keith\'s_Moon_Page A collection of facts, phases, folklore and photographs. |
| Lunar_Volcanoes An Introduction to Lunar Domes by Nigel Longshaw, an illustrated description of these features including characteristics and observation history. |
| Lunarsat_Info_Page Multimedia presentation of the European space mission to investigate the south pole for its suitability for the first permanent human outpost. |
| The_Moon_Illusion_Explained Why our satellite looks big at the horizon and smaller when higher up. |
| The_Moon_Museum A tour made on the 30th anniversary of the first lunar landing. |
| Moon_Page Some facts, quotations, trivia chosen at random. |
| Moon_Stereogram_Demonstration Demonstration as to why the Moon appears larger when nearer the horizon than when high in the sky. |
| Moon_Survey Tips for observing our satellite and drawing lunar features. Data archive, pictures, movies and selected links also available. |
| MoonBase7 Facts, missions, phases, news, links. Also dedicated to the space in general and robotics. |
| NSSDC_Photo_Gallery__Moon Select images from various space probes and telescopes. |
| The_Origin_of_the_Moon Scientific research report providing overview of current theories. |
| SMART-1__ESA\'s_Mission_to_the_Moon Official mission site includes articles, images, FLASH presentation, PDF brochures, etc. |
Chandra X-ray image of the outer jets of the Vela pulsar, from[53]. The jet on the right extends to about0.45 light-year from the pulsar. The blobs in the jet move outwardat 0.3 to 0.6 c. The pulsar is moving at a velocity of 97 km/s towardthe right jet, which probably explains the asymmetry between the northand south poles. The second image shows the Crab pulsar's jets[25].The jets present evidence that the magnetic and rotationalaxes of the pulsars are aligned. Charged particles can only escape throughthe magnetic field in the polar regions, so if the magnetic and rotational axeswere not aligned then the jets would be cone shaped. The imagesargue against the validity of the conventional rotational pulsar model,since a rotating pulsar becomes disabled when the axes are aligned.
The magnetic force between the poles of a magnetized sphere isattractive. The force at the equator is repulsive, so the magneticfield causes an equatorial bulge. Centrifugal force also causes anequatorial bulge. The energetically preferred orientation of themagnetic field is therefore parallel to the spin axis.In the most general case mathematically possible, the distance betweentwo infinitesimally spaced points has both symmetric and antisymmetriccomponents. It is the conventional conclusion that the antisymmetricterms do not occur in nature, but there is the consideration that thegeneral theory is not a theory of electricity. The Maxwell equationsare accommodated by the theory; they are not obtainable from theasymptotic limits of it.There have been many investigations into the possibility that theantisymmetric terms play a role [42], evenby Einstein himself, but none of them has led to anestablished theory. It is suggested that some of the difficulty is dueto the lack of observational data of an appropriate form, and thatpulsar observations may be able to supply it.
This 1995 time-lapse movie taken by the[Hubble Space Telescope] showssprites dancing (and being blown away) above the polar regions of the Crabpulsar. Each frame represents an interval of several weeks. The spritesare at a distance of about two light-months from the pulsar, andare probably shock fronts caused by an invisible relativistic beam ofcharged particles. The pulsar itself is the star at bottom center. It lookslike an ordinary star in a time exposure, but the optical emission isactually in the form of 30 Hz flashes.The situation is something of a predicament. The existing nonsymmetricgravitational theories are not well enough developed that they can beused to obtain a persuasive pulsar solution, while without observationalevidence that the pulsars are oscillators there is no compelling need todevelop them. The theoretical and observational consequences ofdiscovering that the pulsars are oscillators are so enormous that afurther analysis of the observational data seems justified.Some observational tests are discussed below in Section 5.A fully developed derivation of the pulsar solution will be a formidableexercise, since the symmetric and antisymmetric terms uncouple inlinearized solutions. See Moffat [41],for example. There appears to be a simpler way of obtaining theessential characteristics of thesolution. The method is not very accurate, but the solution obtainedshould be sufficient for the initial evaluations, and if the pulsars arefound to be oscillators then a substantial amount of theoretical work inthe literature will be brought to bear on the problem.The electrical and gravitational fields appear to be coupled in dynamicsolutions. One consequence of the coupling isthat a dense magnetized sphere has a specific resonant frequencythat decreases to about 0.4 Hz as the radius shrinks to theSchwarzschild radius. Planck's constant is one of the quantities inthe equation for the resonant frequency. The limiting frequencyis independent of the mass of the object and all other parameters. Itis a constant of physics.In being nonlinearly coupled to the gravitational potential energy ofthe source, gravitational contraction can supply energy to the resonant system,causing it to break into oscillation.One reason that oscillatorypulsar models have not received much attention is that the resonantfrequency must decrease as the radius decreases if gravitationalcontraction is to supply the energy. The oscillator developed here isprobably the only one in existence with that characteristic.
[Hubble Space Telescope]view of the M87 jet. The galaxy is thought to contain a massive black hole.Could it actually be a monstrous pulsar? How could we tell?When applied to the 7.47 second isolated X-ray pulsar SGR 1806-20the oscillatory model overestimates the observed power output of the full system,including the nebula, by a factor of 105.The rotational pulsar model fares no better, as it underestimates thetotal power output by a factor of103 if the pulsar radius is10 km. The most commonly accepted explanation for theenergy deficit is that the pulsar is powered by the decay of anunusually intense magnetic field rather than by rotational kineticenergy [7].The magnetar field estimates exceed the critical field of the Diracequations by up to a factor of 20[28]. That may be possible, but thefield strength estimates do not appear tobe reliable. The spindown rate of SGR 1900+14 doubled for 80 days followingthe August 1998 outburst, suggesting that magnetic brakingis not the spindown mechanism for this pulsar, sincethe field strength would have had to increase by a factorof two in a short time, which is not plausible[29].The oscillatory power calculation is based only on basic energyrelationships, so the energy discrepancy in this model may be due to massejection. In this model the pulsar has an intenseE field so that when infalling material becomesionized half the particles are ejected from the system. The otherhalf collides with the pulsar, creating more charged particles.At high energies a relatively small mass flow could account for thecomputed energy transfer, but a more likely explanation is thatthe equation badlyoverestimates the actual power output if the pulsarejects its own mass, which can happen in an electrostatic field. Thecomputed power output must therefore be taken as only an upperlimit until observational data on the pulsar's mass flow becomeavailable. Infrared observations show that the pulsar is surrounded by a dustcloud [14], which may be relevant to theenergy flow equation.
The inner knot of the Crab pulsar [34].The knot is on the spin axis at a distance of about one light-week. It isa stable feature.Polarization measurements show that the knot's magnetic field is perpendicularto the spin axis, implying that the field is toroidal.It is perplexing that there is no knot above the other pole. The pulsarhas a velocity of 0.0005 c parallel to the spin axis, which mayaccount for the asymmetry. The pulsar appears to be an aligned rotor. Section 1 A nonsymmetric metric Section 2 The electrical field limits of space and time Section 3 The conservation of charge in the intense field Section 4 Derivation of the pulsar resonance frequency Section 5 Observational tests Section 6 Gamma ray bursts Gary OsbornElectro-Chemical Devices23665 Via Del RioYorba Linda CA 92887-2715 USA www.s-4.com If you find technical or conceptual error in any of the material atthis site then please email me the details of it.Last update 18 August 2005 Revision History 